Residence & Nationality [ECHR]

Movement

The fourth and seventh Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights deal with freedom of movement and the right to choose a residence in the broadest sense. Article 3 of the Protocol prohibits the deportation of nationals and confirms the right of nationals to enter their own country. Article 4 prohibits the collective expulsion of non-nationals. An alien may not be deported without due process of law. The rights are based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Protocol 4, not been ratified by all states and is controversial, given its impact on immigration policy.  States may declare separate territories to be treated separately when ratifying the Protocol. Accordingly, when a state extends the Protocol to dependent territories, it may (choose only to) guarantee freedom of movement within those territories without guaranteeing freedom of movement from one territory to the other.

Nationals

Persons who have a common nationality from a connection with one territory do not necessarily have the right to enter or immunity from deportation from another territory. This would apply where each territory has its own laws regarding admission and expulsion such as in the case of UK overseas territories, notwithstanding the commonality of nationality.

Article 2 of Protocol 4 provides everyone lawfully within the territory of a state shall within that territory have the right to liberty of movement and freedom to choose his residence. Everyone shall be free to leave any country, including his own.

No restriction shall be placed on the exercise of these rights other than such as or in accordance with law and as are necessary in a democratic society, in the interest of national security or public safety for the maintenance of “ordre public”  or the prevention of crime or the prevention, protection of health or morals or for the protection of rights and their rights and freedom of others.

The above rights above may also be subject in particular areas to restrictions imposed in accordance with law and justified by the public interest in a democratic society.

Non-Nationals

Everyone lawfully within a territory includes the state’s nationals. Others may be lawfully present, provided that they comply with their conditions of entry. This may include limitations on the duration of their rights. Arguments have been made that such persons may not be subject to restrictions on their freedom of movement or freedom to choose a place of residence, notwithstanding the above broader conditions.

The position of asylum seekers is limited depending on the decision on their status. They enjoy such rights under a provisional authorisation, and their presence in the territory is subject to compliance with those terms. This may require him to reside in a particular place or may restrict his freedom of movement through the territory.

The maintenance of “ordre public” is broader than the concept of public order in English. It includes, for example, persons in lawful detention and person the subject of extradition.

In Baumann, the court reiterated that the right of freedom of movement, as guaranteed by paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article 2, Protocol 4,  is intended to secure to any person a right of liberty of movement within a territory and to leave that territory. It implies the right to leave for such country of the person’s choice to which he may be admitted.

Restrictions

It follows that freedom of movement prohibits any measure liable to infringe that right or restrict the exercise thereof which does not satisfy the requirement of a measure  which can be considered necessary in a democratic society in the pursuit of the legitimate aims referred to in the Article.

Any measure restricting the rights

• must be lawful,
• pursue one of the legitimate aims referred to . . .
• and strike a fair balance between the public’s interest and individual rights.

It was held that a restriction on residence in the course of a criminal investigation was a breach of the provision but was subject in principle to being justified as necessary in a democratic order for the prevention of crime and maintenance of the ordre public, provided the measure is proportionate to a legitimate aim.

Similarly, provisions as to house arrest in the context of the investigation of serious crime was capable of being justified, provided it is proportionate. However, it was held in the case of Raimondo v. Italy that an unnecessary delay before notification of revocation of this provision was not necessary.

In Labita v. Italy, person who had been acquitted of mafia-type offences continued to be placed under special supervision on the alleged basis of possible future offences. The court considered “that it is the judgement for preventative measures including special supervision to be taken against persons suspected of being members of the mafia even prior to conviction as they are intended to prevent crimes being committed.

Preventative Measures

Furthermore, an acquittal does not necessarily deprive such measures of all foundation as concrete evidence gathered at trial, although insufficient to secure a conviction, may nonetheless justify reasonable fears that the person concerned and may in the future commit criminal offences.” In this particular case, the court concluded there was insufficient basis, and they were accordingly in breach.

In a number of cases involving Bulgaria, the proportionality of travel restriction were considered in relation to convicted prisoners subject to rehabilitation orders after leaving prison. It was accepted that they may be necessary in principle to maintain order. However, where they are automatically applied and the individual circumstances were not considered and were not reviewable, it was disproportionate.

Passport Retention

In Napijalo v. Croatia, border customs authorities confiscated a passport. The applicant had allegedly failed to clear goods subject to customs, he could not pay an “on the spot” fine and his passport was taken for three years as security for the fine. It was held that this was an unjustified violation of his rights. It must be in accordance with the law, be necessary in a democratic society and be necessary for securing a legitimate aim. No proceedings were initiated pursuant to the customs infringements.

In Baumann v. France, a German national’s passport was seized by French police from a hotel room and was retained for a considerable time. The individual was later arrested in Germany,  tried and convicted and imprisoned. Although the passport was not necessary for free movement within Europe and did not, in fact  interfere with his free movement, the court considered that there had been an interference with free movement. There was no justification for continuing to hold the passport, although justified at first.

Civil Detention

In Stamose v. Bulgaria, a measure applying penalties for breach of other states\’ immigration laws which involved a two-year travel ban. It could in principle, be justified as supporting immigration confidence of other states in immigration services. However, in this case, it was found disproportionate as it was blanket in nature.

In Riener v. Bulgaria, it was held that a restriction on leaving Bulgaria as a result of tax debt was disproportionate as there was a lengthy restriction, it applied automatically, was not systematically reviewed and there was little evidence of attempts to recover the tax. The measure could in principle, be justified provided it served the aim of recovery of tax, but it could not be a punishment in effect.

Chlyustov v. Russia involved a travel ban for non-payment of a debt. There was a violation as it was disproportionate by reason of the absence of a review during its duration.

In Luordo v. Italy, the restriction on the movement of a bankrupt person beyond the period necessary to secure his assets was a violation of the guarantee.

Pre-Trial

In Haibeyli v Azerbaijan, the court indicated that the restrictions on movement need to be considered in context and not just in terms of duration. The comparative duration of restrictions cannot be taken as a sole base for determining whether a fair balance has been struck in the general interest in the proper conduct of criminal proceedings and the interest in personal freedom of movement.

The issue must be assessed in all the special features of the case. A restriction may be justified in a given case only if there are clear indications of a genuine public interest which outweighs the individual’s right to freedom of movement.

In Fedorov and Fedorova, the case involved an alleged fraud which had taken many years to go through the criminal justice system, during which the applicant\’s freedom of movement was restricted.

They were given freedom and special permission to travel on two occasions. The court held the actions of the Russian Government not to be disproportionate. It may be disproportionate if the travel ban is not reassessed from time to time.

Civil Restrictions

In Landvreugd v. Netherlands, a restriction applied by civil authorities on a person’s presence in a particular area as part of anti-drug policy measures was held in the circumstances not to violate rights. The fact that orders of this type were long-standing was not a relevant consideration in itself.

Unjustified monitoring of persons and confinement to a part of the territory may be a violation. In Denizci v. Cyprus, the confinement of a person to a particular area without a lawful basis was neither provided by law nor necessary.

In Tatishvili v. Russia, a requirement for registration of residence changes every time a person changes residence or visits family or friends away from home constitutes an interference with the right of movement.

In Timishev v. Russia, a refusal of entry of a Chechen to another part of Russia requiring him to make a 300 km detour was argued to be part of a policy of refusing entry to Chechens by car. This was denied. The court held the restriction on movement was not in accordance with the law and that there was a violation. It was also held to be ethnically based and discriminatory.

National Security Bans

A proportionate restriction on leaving the country may be justified for national security reasons. In Bartik v. Russia, a five-year travel ban on a person travelling abroad following research and development work in the rocket and space area, there was held to a violation in the circumstances.

The applicant sought to travel abroad to visit his ill father. He had surrendered classified material and the visit was for private purposes. The review available did not look at the merits of the case and it was not shown how the restrictions served national security. In Soltysyak v. Russia, a travel ban on an ex-soldier who worked on rocket launch tests was held to be disproportionate.

National Security Deprivation of Citizenship

K2 v. the United Kingdom;the applicant, a naturalised British citizen, left the United Kingdom in breach of his bail conditions. While he was out of the country, the Secretary of State for the Home Department ordered that the applicant be deprived of his citizenship on the ground that such measure was conducive to the public good. The applicant was also excluded from the United Kingdom on the ground that he was involved in terrorism-related activities and had links to a number of Islamic extremists. The Court declared the application inadmissible as being manifestly ill-founded.

It firstly found that, although an arbitrary denial or revocation of citizenship might in some circumstances raise an issue under Article 8 of the Convention, because of its impact on the private life of an individual, no such issue arose in the present case. Moreover, the Court held that Article 8 of the Convention could not be interpreted so as to impose an obligation on States to facilitate the return of every person deprived of citizenship in order for them to pursue an appeal against that decision..

Ghoumid and Others v. France concerned five individuals, formerly having dual nationality, who were convicted of participation in a criminal conspiracy to commit an act of terrorism. After serving their sentences they were released in 2009 and 2010, then stripped of their French nationality in October 2015.. The Court held that there had been no violation of Article 8 of the Convention, finding that the decision to deprive the applicants of French nationality had not had disproportionate consequences for their private life.

It reiterated in particular the point, already made in a number of judgments, that terrorist violence constituted in itself a serious threat to human rights. As the applicants already had another nationality, thedecision to deprive them of French nationality had not had the effect of making them stateless. In addition, loss of French nationality did not automatically entail deportation from France, but if such a measure were to be decided against them they would have the appropriate remedies by which to assert their rights.

Usmanov v. Russia concerned a national of Tajikstan’s complaint about decisions to revoke his Russian citizenship and remove him from Russian territory. The applicant had been granted Russian citizenship in 2008, but it had been revoked ten years later when the authorities The Court held that there had been a violation of Article 8 of the Convention as concerned both the revocation of the applicant’s Russian citizenship and the decision to expel him from Russian territory, finding that, overall, it had not been convincingly established that the threat which the applicant had allegedly posed to national security had outweighed the fact that he had been living in Russia for a considerable period of time in a household with a Russian national, with whom he had four children, two of whom had been born in Russia.

Deprivation of Citizenship; Nullity Sham Marriage

Ramadan v. Malta The applicant, originally an Egyptian citizen, acquired Maltese citizenship following his marriage to a Maltese national. It was revoked by the Minister of Justice and Internal Affairs following a decision by the relevant domestic court to annul the marriage on the ground that the applicant’s only reason to marry had been to remain in Malta and acquire Maltese citizenship.

The Court firstly observed that a loss of a citizenship already acquired or born into, as in the applicant’s case, could have the same (and possibly a bigger) impact on a person’s private and family life as a person claiming the right to acquire citizenship or complaining about the denial of recognition of such citizenship. Thus, also in these situations an arbitrary revocation of citizenship could in certain circumstances raise an issue under Article 8 of the Convention because of its impact on the private life of the individual.

However, the Court held that there had been no violation of Article 8 of the Convention in the applicant’s case, finding that, in the circumstances of the case, the decision depriving him of his citizenship had not been arbitrary. The Court noted in particular that the decision had had a clear legal basis under the relevant national law and had been accompanied by hearings and remedies consistent with procedural fairness. Besides, the applicant, who was not threatened with expulsion from Malta, had nonetheless been able to pursue his business activities and to reside in Malta and it had still been open to him to apply for a work permit and a residence permit there, which could eventually also make him eligible for citizenship.